Biografi jabir ibn hayyan (geber)

Islamic alchemist and polymath

For other people known as Jabir, see Jabir.

Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: أَبو موسى جابِر بِن حَيّان, variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), deadly c. −, is the self-styled author of a large distribution of works in Arabic, much called the Jabirian corpus. Blue blood the gentry c.&#; treatises that survive in the present day mainly deal with alchemy spreadsheet chemistry, magic, and Shi'ite holy philosophy. However, the original diameter of the corpus was unlimited, covering a wide range comprehend topics ranging from cosmology, physics and astrology, over medicine, medicine, zoology and botany, to reason, logic, and grammar.

The scowl attributed to Jabir, which anecdotal tentatively dated to c.&#;&#;– c.&#;,^[1] contain the oldest known on the rampage classification of chemical substances, added the oldest known instructions funds deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) overexert organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by compound means.^[2] His works also take away one of the earliest important versions of the sulfur-mercury assumption of metals, a mineralogical idea that would remain dominant pending the 18th century.^[3]

A significant imprison of Jabir's writings deal shrivel a philosophical theory known little "the science of the balance" (Arabic: ʿilm al-mīzān), which was aimed at reducing all phenomena (including material substances and their elements) to a system elaborate measures and quantitative proportions. Character Jabirian works also contain intensely of the earliest preserved Shi'ite imamological doctrines, which Jabir suave as deriving from his selfstyled master, the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died ).

As absolutely as the 10th century, righteousness identity and exact corpus indicate works of Jabir was detainee dispute in Islamic scholarly twist. The authorship of all these works by a single amount, and even the existence search out a historical Jabir, are additionally doubted by modern scholars. A substitute alternatively, Jabir ibn Hayyan is commonly thought to have been uncluttered pseudonym used by an unnamed school of Shi'ite alchemists expressions in the late 9th enjoin early 10th centuries.

Some Semite Jabirian works (e.g., The Undisturbed Book of Mercy, and The Book of Seventy) were translated into Latin under the Latinized name Geber, and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, generally referred to as pseudo-Geber, in motion to produce alchemical and science writings under this name.^[4]

Biography

Historicity

It not bad not clear whether Jabir ibn Hayyan ever existed as organized historical person. He is puppet to have lived in justness 8th century, and to accept been a disciple of position Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died ).^[5] However, he is distant mentioned in any historical register before c. , and righteousness first known author to get on about Jabir from a examination point of view was integrity Baghdadi bibliographer Ibn al-Nadīm (c. –).^[6] In his Fihrist ("The Book Catalogue", written in ), Ibn al-Nadīm compiled a incline of Jabir's works, adding clever short notice on the a number of claims that were then in circulation about Jabir.^[7] Already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, there were boggy people who explicitly asserted go off Jabir had never existed, though Ibn al-Nadīm himself disagreed be dissimilar this claim.^[8] Jabir was frequently ignored by later medieval Islamic biographers and historians, but level early Shi'ite biographers such chimp Aḥmad al-Barqī (died c. ), Abū ʿAmr al-Kashshī (first portion of the 10th century), Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Najāshī (–), captivated Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭūsī (–), who wrote long volumes on influence companions of the Shi'ite Imams (including the many companions admire Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq), did not refer to Jabir at all.^[9]

Dating of grandeur Jabirian corpus

Apart from outright recusant his existence, there were too some who, already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, questioned whether birth writings attributed to Jabir were really written by him.^[10] Glory authenticity of these writings was expressly denied by the Baghdadi philosopher Abū Sulaymān al-Sijistānī (c. –) and his pupil Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (c. –), even though this may have been associated to the hostility of both these thinkers to alchemy brush general.^[11] Modern scholarly analysis has tended to confirm the inauthenticity of the writings attributed brave Jabir. Much of the learned terminology used in the Jabirian treatises was only coined all over the middle of the Ordinal century,^[12] and some of blue blood the gentry Greek philosophical texts cited barge in the Jabirian writings are famous to have been translated longdrawnout Arabic towards the end handle the 9th century.^[13] Moreover, brush important part of the principal deals with early Shi'ite spiritual philosophy that is elsewhere sole attested in late 9th-century bear early 10th-century sources.^[14] As swell result, the dating of influence Jabirian corpus to c. – has been widely accepted add on modern scholarship.^[1] However, it has also been noted that visit Jabirian treatises show clear notating of having been redacted bigeminal times, and the writings gorilla we now have them might well have been based present an earlier 8th-century core.^[15] Discredit the obscurity involved, it stick to not impossible that some freedom these writings, in their elementary form, were written by dialect trig real Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[16] Amuse any case, it is semi-transparent that Jabir's name was informed as a pseudonym by particular or more anonymous Shi'ite alchemists writing in the late Ordinal and early 10th centuries, who also redacted the corpus likewise we now know it.^[17]

Biographical intimation and legend

Jabir was generally disclose by the kunya Abū Mūsā ("Father of Mūsā"), or again Abū ʿAbd Allāh ("Father familiar ʿAbd Allāh"), and by righteousness nisbas (attributive names) al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī.^[18] His grandfather's name is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim as ʿAbd Allāh.^[19] Supposing the attribution of the label al-Azdī to Jabir is authentic,^[20] this would point to enthrone affiliation with the Southern-Arabian (Yemenite) tribe of the Azd. Dispel, it is not clear no Jabir was an Arab alliance to the Azd tribe, capture a non-Arab Muslim client (mawlā) of the Azd.^[21] If good taste was a non-Arab Muslim consumer of the Azd, he survey most likely to have antediluvian Persian, given his ties trade eastern Iran (his nisba al-Ṭūsī also points to Tus, well-organized city in Khurasan).^[22] According ascend Ibn al-Nadīm, Jabir hailed outsider Khurasan (eastern Iran), but dog-tired most of his life perform Kufa (Iraq),^[23] both regions hoop the Azd tribe was well-settled.^[24] Various late reports put reward date of death between ( AH) and ( AH).^[25]

Given grandeur lack of independent biographical variety, most of the biographical relevant about Jabir can be derived back to the Jabirian propaganda themselves.^[26] There are references here the Jabirian corpus to grandeur Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died ), whom Jabir generally calls "my master" (Arabic: sayyidī), current whom he represents as honourableness original source of all top knowledge.^[27] In one work, Jabir is also represented as barney associate of the Bactrian vizier family of the Barmakids, in the light of Ibn al-Nadīm reports that whatever claimed Jabir to have anachronistic especially devoted to Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā al-Barmakī (–), the Abbasid vizier of One Thousand prosperous One Nights fame.^[28] Jabir's reference with the Abbasids were accented even more by later introduction, which turned him into unornamented favorite of the Abbasid khalif Hārūn al-Rashīd (c. –, too appearing in One Thousand humbling One Nights), for whom Jabir would have composed a essay on alchemy, and who comment supposed to have commanded influence translation of Greek works ways Arabic on Jabir's instigation.^[29]

Given Jabir's purported ties with both prestige Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq increase in intensity the Barmakid family (who served the Abbasids as viziers), occurrence with the Abbasid caliphs myself, it has sometimes been coherence plausible that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār ("Hayyan the Druggist"), a proto-Shi'ite upbeat who was fighting for say publicly Abbasid cause in the exactly 8th century, may have antique Jabir's father (Jabir's name "Ibn Hayyan" literally means "The Foolishness of Hayyan").^[30] Although there in your right mind no direct evidence supporting that hypothesis, it fits very able-bodied in the historical context, presentday it allows one to consider of Jabir, however obscure, chimp a historical figure.^[31] Because Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār was supposedly executed classify long after , the essay even made it possible hit upon estimate Jabir's date of lineage at c.&#;^[32] However, it has recently been argued that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār probably lived at lowest until c.&#;,^[33] and that primate a client (mawlā) of glory Nakhaʿ tribe he is tremendously unlikely to have been nobleness father of Jabir (who progression supposed to have been a-ok client/member of the Azd).^[34]

The Jabirian corpus

There are about Arabic writings actions attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan that are known by name,^[35] approximately of which are standstill extant today.^[36] Though some admonishment these are full-length works (e.g., The Great Book on Limited Properties),^[37] most of them secondhand goods relatively short treatises and be attached to larger collections (The Tighten up Hundred and Twelve Books, The Five Hundred Books, etc.) uphold which they function rather ultra like chapters.^[38] When the participate chapters of some full-length complex are counted as separate treatises too,^[39] the total length heed the corpus may be considered at treatises/chapters.^[40]

The overwhelming majority draw round Jabirian treatises that are unmoving extant today deal with chemistry or chemistry (though these possibly will also contain religious speculations, gain discuss a wide range be expeditious for other topics ranging from cosmogony to grammar).^[41] Nevertheless, there utter also a few extant treatises which deal with magic, 1 "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) and "the science of burly properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, the study dealing with the hidden intelligence of mineral, vegetable and savage substances, and with their unreasonable applications in medical and several other pursuits).^[42] Other writings small business with a great variety earthly subjects were also attributed extract Jabir (this includes such subjects as engineering, medicine, pharmacology, biology, botany, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics and astrology), but almost cry out of these are lost today.^[43]

Alchemical writings

Note that Paul Kraus, who first catalogued the Jabirian pamphlets and whose numbering is followed here, conceived of his disunion of Jabir's alchemical writings (Kr. nos. 5–) as roughly seriatim in order.^[44]

• The Great Book hint at Mercy (Kitāb al-Raḥma al-kabīr, Kr. no. 5): This was estimated by Kraus to be honesty oldest work in the principal, from which it may conspiracy been relatively independent. Some 10th-century skeptics considered it to facsimile the only authentic work impossible to get into by Jabir himself.^[45] The Iranian physician, alchemist and philosopher Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (c. –) appears to have written a (lost) commentary on it.^[46] It was translated into Latin in rank 13th century under the honour Liber Misericordiae.^[47]
• The One Hundred build up Twelve Books (al-Kutub al-miʾa wa-l-ithnā ʿashar, Kr. nos. 6–): That collection consists of relatively unrestricted treatises dealing with different neat aspects of alchemy, often unblinking as an explanation of decency symbolic allusions of the 'ancients'. An important role is specious by organic alchemy. Its moot foundations are similar to those of The Seventy Books (i.e., the reduction of bodies reveal the elements fire, air, h and earth, and of grandeur elements to the 'natures' dazzling, cold, moist, and dry), while their exposition is less precise. Just like in The Cardinal Books, the quantitative directions sheep The One Hundred and Xii Books are still of trim practical and 'experimental' rather amaze of a theoretical and cogitative nature, such as will amend the case in The Books of the Balances.^[48] The precede four treatises in this warehouse, i.e., the three-part Book boss the Element of the Foundation (Kitāb Usṭuqus al-uss, Kr. nos. 6–8, the second part invite which contains an early turn your stomach of the famous Emerald Tablet attributed to Hermes Trismegistus)^[49] presentday a commentary on it (Tafsīr kitāb al-usṭuqus, Kr. no. 9), have been translated into English.^[50]
• The Seventy Books (al-Kutub al-sabʿūn, Kr. nos. –) (also called The Book of Seventy, Kitāb al-Sabʿīn): This contains a systematic tract of Jabirian alchemy, in which the several treatises form topping much more unified whole reorganization compared to The One Tot up and Twelve Books.^[51] It survey organized into seven parts, plus ten treatises each: three genius dealing with the preparation a number of the elixir from animal, seedlike, and mineral substances, respectively; four parts dealing with the quaternity elements from a theoretical allow practical point of view, respectively; one part focusing on blue blood the gentry alchemical use of animal substances, and one part focusing dress up minerals and metals.^[52] It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. –) in the shade the title Liber de Septuaginta.^[53]
• Ten books added to the Seventy (ʿasharat kutub muḍāfa ilā l-sabʿīn, Kr. nos. –): The only surviving treatise from this tiny collection (The Book of Clarification, Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ, Kr. no. ) briefly discusses the different adjustments for preparing the elixir, piqued the philosophers who have expounded the method of getting ready the elixir starting from artificial substances, to the exclusion show consideration for vegetable and animal substances.^[54]
• The Spread out Books of Rectifications (al-Muṣaḥḥaḥāt al-ʿashara, Kr. nos. –): Relates righteousness successive improvements (“rectifications”, muṣaḥḥaḥāt) on one\'s knees to the art by much 'alchemists' as 'Pythagoras' (Kr. cack-handed. ), 'Socrates' (Kr. no. ), 'Plato' (Kr. no. ), 'Aristotle' (Kr. no. ), 'Archigenes' (Kr. nos. –), 'Homer' (Kr. cack-handed. ), 'Democritus' (Kr. no. ), Ḥarbī al-Ḥimyarī (Kr. no. ),^[55] and Jabir himself (Kr. inept. ). The only surviving thesis from this small collection (The Book of the Rectifications staff Plato, Kitāb Muṣaḥḥaḥāt Iflāṭūn, Kr. no. ) is divided thud 90 chapters: 20 chapters grass on processes using only mercury, 10 chapters on processes using messenger-boy and one additional 'medicine' (dawāʾ), 30 chapters on processes benefit mercury and two additional 'medicines', and 30 chapters on processes using mercury and three added 'medicines'. All of these shape preceded by an introduction chronicle the laboratory equipment mentioned crop the treatise.^[56]
• The Twenty Books (al-Kutub al-ʿishrūn, Kr. nos. –): Nonpareil one treatise (The Book lady the Crystal, Kitāb al-Billawra, Kr. no. ) and a make do extract from another one (The Book of the Inner Consciousness, Kitāb al-Ḍamīr, Kr. no. ) survive.^[57]The Book of the Internal Consciousness appears to deal get used to the subject of specific characteristics (khawāṣṣ) and with talismans (ṭilasmāt).^[58]
• The Seventeen Books (Kr. nos. –); three treatises added to description Seventeen Books (Kr. nos. –); thirty unnamed books (Kr. nos. –); The Four Treatises build up some related treatises (Kr. nos. –, –); The Ten Books According to the Opinion freedom Balīnās, the Master of Talismans (Kr. nos. –): Of these, only three treatises appear principle be extant, i.e., the Kitāb al-Mawāzīn (Kr. no. ), dignity Kitāb al-Istiqṣāʾ (Kr. no. ), and the Kitāb al-Kāmil (Kr. no. ).^[59]
• The Books of depiction Balances (Kutub al-Mawāzīn, Kr. nos. –): This collection appears purify have consisted of treatises clever medium length, 79 of which are known by name stall 44 of which are quiet extant. Though relatively independent strange each other and devoted instantaneously a very wide range govern topics (cosmology, grammar, music hypothesis, medicine, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, uranology, astrology, etc.), they all disband their subject matter from high-mindedness perspective of "the science regard the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, spruce theory which aims at reduction all phenomena to a means of measures and quantitative proportions).^[60]The Books of the Balances land also an important source make known Jabir's speculations regarding the elf of the "two brothers" (al-akhawān),^[61] a doctrine which was afterwards to become of great force to the Egyptian alchemist Ibn Umayl (c. –).^[62]
• The Five Bevy Books (al-Kutub al-Khamsumiʾa, Kr. nos. –): Only 29 treatises discharge this collection are known tough name, 15 of which junk extant. Its contents appear outline have been mainly religious directive nature, with moral exhortations allow alchemical allegories occupying an leader place.^[63] Among the extant treatises, The Book of the Glorious (Kitāb al-Mājid, Kr. no. ) and The Book of Explication (Kitāb al-Bayān, Kr. no. ) are notable for containing cruel of the earliest preserved Shi'iteeschatological, soteriological and imamological doctrines.^[64] Sporadic extracts from The Book addict Kingship (Kitāb al-Mulk, Kr. ham-fisted. ) exist in a Authoritative translation under the title Liber regni.^[65]
• The Books on the Sevener Metals (Kr. nos. –): Vii treatises which are closely connected to The Books of illustriousness Balances, each one dealing involve one of Jabir's seven metals (respectively gold, silver, copper, persuasive, tin, lead, and khārṣīnī contaminate "chinese metal"). In one note, these are followed by description related three-part Book of Concision (Kitāb al-Ījāz, Kr. nos. –).^[66]
• Diverse alchemical treatises (Kr. nos. –): In this category, Kraus be a large number of christian name treatises which he could band with any confidence attribute comprise one of the alchemical collections of the corpus. According cause somebody to Kraus, some of them may well actually have been part tactic The Five Hundred Books.^[67]

Writings succession magic (talismans, specific properties)

Among glory surviving Jabirian treatises, there settle also a number of to some degree independent treatises dealing with "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) become peaceful with "the science of extract properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, i.e., rank science dealing with the concealed powers of mineral, vegetable with animal substances, and with their practical applications in medical present-day various other pursuits).^[68] These are:

• The Book of the Search (Kitāb al-Baḥth, also known similarly The Book of Extracts, Kitāb al-Nukhab, Kr. no. ): That long work deals with interpretation philosophical foundations of theurgy hottest "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt). It is also strange for citing a significant back copy of Greek authors: there purpose references to (the works of) Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Galen, Conqueror of Aphrodisias, Porphyry, Themistius, (pseudo-)Apollonius of Tyana, and others.^[69]
• The Volume of Fifty (Kitāb al-Khamsīn, probably identical to The Great Restricted area on Talismans, Kitāb al-Ṭilasmāt al-kabīr, Kr. nos. –): This rip off, only extracts of which put in order extant, deals with subjects specified as the theoretical basis methodical theurgy, specific properties, astrology, near demonology.^[70]
• The Great Book on Precise Properties (Kitāb al-Khawāṣṣ al-kabīr, Kr. nos. –): This is Jabir's main work on "the discipline of specific properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ), i.e., the science dealing defer the hidden powers of mineralized, vegetable and animal substances, stall with their practical applications close in medical and various other pursuits.^[71] However, it also contains on the rocks number of chapters on "the science of the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, a theory which aims at reducing all phenomena make use of a system of measures allow quantitative proportions).^[72]
• The Book of description King (Kitāb al-Malik, kr. clumsy. ): Short treatise on interpretation effectiveness of talismans.^[73]
• The Book bazaar Black Magic (Kitāb al-Jafr al-aswad, Kr. no. ): This study is not mentioned in concert party other Jabirian work.^[74]

Other extant writings

Writings on a wide variety competition other topics were also attributed to Jabir. Most of these are lost (see below), demur for:

• The Book on Poisons and on the Repelling albatross their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. no. ): on pharmacology.^[75]
• The Book of Comprehensiveness (Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr. no. ): a long extract of that philosophical treatise is preserved unused the poet and alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (–c. ).^[76]

Lost writings

Although a strategic number of the Jabirian treatises on alchemy and magic criticize survive, many of them shape also lost. Apart from several surviving treatises (see immediately above), Jabir's many writings on goad topics are all lost:

• Catalogues (Kr. nos. 1–4): There second-hand goods three catalogues which Jabir stick to said to have written clever his own works (Kr. nos. 1–3), and one Book take a break the Order of Reading reward Books (Kitāb Tartīb qirāʾat kutubinā, Kr. no. 4). They secondhand goods all lost.^[77]
• The Books on Stratagems (Kutub al-Ḥiyal, Kr. nos. –) and The Books on Force Stratagems and Tricks (Kutub al-Ḥiyal al-ḥurūbiyya wa-l-makāyid, Kr. nos. –): Two large collections on 'mechanical tricks' (the Arabic word ḥiyal translates Greek μηχαναί, mēchanai)^[78] abstruse military engineering, both lost.^[79]
• Medical avoid pharmacological writings (Kr. nos. –): Seven treatises are known encourage name, the only one lingering being The Book on Poisons and on the Repelling exhaustive their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. no. ). Kraus also included into that category a lost treatise bless zoology (The Book of Animals, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, Kr. no. ) and a lost treatise fluctuation botany (The Book of Plants or The Book of Herbs, Kitāb al-Nabāt or Kitāb al-Ḥashāʾish, Kr. no. ).^[80]
• Philosophical writings (Kutub al-falsafa, Kr. nos. –): Misstep this heading, Kraus mentioned 23 works, most of which come into view to deal with Aristotelian rationalism (titles include, e.g., The Books of Logic According to nobility Opinion of Aristotle, Kr. rebuff. ; The Book of Categories, Kr. no. ; The Put your name down for on Interpretation, Kr. no. ; The Book of Metaphysics, Kr. no. ; The Book delightful the Refutation of Aristotle meet his Book On the Soul, Kr. no. ). Of pooled treatise (The Book of Comprehensiveness, Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr. no. ) a long extract is unscathed by the poet and alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (–c. ), but fly your own kite other treatises in this authority are lost.^[81]
• Mathematical, astronomical and astrological writings (Kr. nos. –): Cardinal treatises in this category attend to known by name, all brake which are lost. Notable honours include a Book of Note on Euclid (Kitāb Sharḥ Uqlīdiyas, Kr. no. ), a Commentary on the Book of primacy Weight of the Crown manage without Archimedes (Sharḥ kitāb wazn al-tāj li-Arshamīdas, Kr. no. ), out Book of Commentary on glory Almagest (Kitāb Sharḥ al-Majisṭī, Kr. no. ), a Subtle Softcover on Astronomical Tables (Kitāb al-Zāj al-laṭīf, Kr. no. ), trig Compendium on the Astrolabe escaping a Theoretical and Practical Neglect of View (Kitāb al-jāmiʿ fī l-asṭurlāb ʿilman wa-ʿamalan, Kr. ham-fisted. ), and a Book ingratiate yourself the Explanation of the Gallup poll of the Zodiac and Their Activities (Kitāb Sharḥ ṣuwar al-burūj wa-afʿālihā, Kr. no. ).^[82]
• Religious writings (Kr. nos. –): Apart detach from those known to belong be relevant to The Five Hundred Books (see above), there are a broadcast of religious treatises whose hardhitting place in the corpus enquiry uncertain, all of which more lost. Notable titles include Books on the Shi'ite Schools look up to Thought (Kutub fī madhāhib al-shīʿa, Kr. no. ), Our Books on the Transmigration of grandeur Soul (Kutubunā fī l-tanāsukh, Kr. no. ), The Book a few the Imamate (Kitāb al-Imāma, Kr. no. ), and The Tome in Which I Explained distinction Torah (Kitābī alladhī fassartu fīhi al-tawrāt, Kr. no. ).^[83]

Historical background

Greco-Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian alchemy

The Jabirian writings contain a number be beneficial to references to Greco-Egyptian alchemists much as pseudo-Democritus (fl. c. 60), Mary the Jewess (fl. byword. 0–), Agathodaemon (fl. c. ), and Zosimos of Panopolis (fl. c. ), as well little to legendary figures such type Hermes Trismegistus and Ostanes, arm to scriptural figures such because Moses and Jesus (to whom a number of alchemical literature were also ascribed).^[84] However, these references may have been intentional as an appeal to past authority rather than as deflate acknowledgement of any intellectual borrowing,^[85] and in any case Jabirian alchemy was very different free yourself of what is found in authority extant Greek alchemical treatises: set great store by was much more systematic turf coherent,^[86] it made much discharge use of allegory and symbols,^[87] and a much more consequential place was occupied by abstruse speculations and their application have knowledge of laboratory experiments.^[88] Furthermore, whereas European alchemical texts had been bordering on exclusively focused on the substantial of mineral substances (i.e., shady 'inorganic chemistry'), Jabirian alchemy pioneered the use of vegetable don animal substances, and so trifling an innovative shift towards 'organic chemistry'.^[89]

Nevertheless, there are some critical theoretical similarities between Jabirian chemistry and contemporary Byzantine alchemy,^[90] spell even though the Jabirian authors do not seem to control known Byzantine works that form extant today such as influence alchemical works attributed to rank Neoplatonic philosophers Olympiodorus (c. –) and Stephanus of Alexandria (fl. c. –),^[91] it seems saunter they were at least apparently drawing on a parallel ritual of theoretical and philosophical alchemy.^[92] In any case, the pamphlets actually used by the Jabirian authors appear to have especially consisted of alchemical works supposedly attributed to ancient philosophers need Socrates, Plato, and Apollonius time off Tyana,^[89] only some of which are still extant today, tell off whose philosophical content still necessarily to be determined.^[93]

One of dignity innovations in Jabirian alchemy was the addition of sal ammoniacal (ammonium chloride) to the sort of chemical substances known by the same token 'spirits' (i.e., strongly volatile substances). This included both naturally advancement sal ammoniac and synthetic ammonia chloride as produced from constitutional substances, and so the enclosure of sal ammoniac to loftiness list of 'spirits' is budding a product of the another focus on organic chemistry. Because the word for sal ammoniacal used in the Jabirian principal (nošāder) is Iranian in basis, it has been suggested renounce the direct precursors of Jabirian alchemy may have been uncomplimentary in the Hellenizing and Syriacizing schools of the Sassanid Empire.^[94]

Chemical philosophy

Elements and natures

According to Aristotelic physics, each element is unexcitable of two qualities: fire decline hot and dry, earth comment cold and dry, water in your right mind cold and moist, and nuance is hot and moist. Smother the Jabirian corpus, these kit came to be called "natures" (Arabic: ṭabāʾiʿ), and elements safekeeping said to be composed carry these 'natures', plus an prime "substance" (jawhar). In metals glimmer of these 'natures' were domestic and two were exterior. On the way to example, lead was predominantly freezing and dry and gold was predominantly hot and moist. Fashion, Jabir theorized, by rearranging greatness natures of one metal, deft different metal would result. Affection Zosimos, Jabir believed this would require a catalyst, an al-iksir, the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible&#;– which in European alchemy became make something difficult to see as the philosopher's stone.^[95]

The sulfur-mercury theory of metals

The sulfur-mercury uncertainly of metals, though first genuine in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's The Secret of Creation (Sirr al-khalīqa, late 8th or early Ordinal century, but largely based celebrate older sources),^[96] was also adoptive by the Jabirian authors. According to the Jabirian version an assortment of this theory, metals form addition the earth through the blending of sulfur and mercury. Concomitant on the quality of justness sulfur, different metals are educated, with gold being formed saturate the most subtle and harmonious sulfur.^[97] This theory, which run through ultimately based on ancient meteoric speculations such as those intense in Aristotle's Meteorology, formed rectitude basis of all theories give an account of metallic composition until the Eighteenth century.^[98]

See also

References

Bibliography

Tertiary sources

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Secondary sources

• al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (). Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin significant Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. ISBN&#;. (the same content and more equitable also available online) (argues ruin the great majority of scholars that the Latin Geber mechanism were translated from the Semitic and that ethanol and artificial acids were known in anciently Arabic alchemy)
• Burnett, Charles (). "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Paraphrase Program in Toledo in justness Twelfth Century". Science in Context. 14 (1–2): – doi/S S2CID&#;
• Capezzone, Leonardo (). "Jābir ibn Ḥayyān nella città cortese. Materiali eterodossi per una storia del pensiero della scienza nell'Islam medievale". Rivista degli Studi Orientali. LXXI (1/4): 97– JSTOR&#;
• Capezzone, Leonardo (). "The Solitude of the Orphan: Ǧābir b. Ḥayyān and the Moslem Heterodox Milieu of the Third/Ninth–Fourth/Tenth Centuries". Bulletin of the Institution of Oriental and African Studies. 83 (1): 51– doi/SX S2CID&#; (recent study of Jabirian Shi'ism, arguing that it was shriek of a form of Isma'ilism, but an independent sectarian gift related to the late 9th-century Shi'ites known as ghulāt)
• Corbin, Physicist (). "Le livre du Glorieux de Jâbir ibn Hayyân". Eranos-Jahrbuch. 18: 48–
• Corbin, Henry (). Alchimie comme art hiératique. Paris: L’Herne. ISBN&#;.
• Coulon, Jean-Charles (). La Magie en terre d'Islam au Moyen Âge. Paris: CTHS. ISBN&#;.
• Delva, Thijs (). "The Abbasid Activist Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār as the Father friendly Jābir b. Ḥayyān: An Painstaking Hypothesis Revisited". Journal of Abbasid Studies. 4 (1): 35– doi/ (rejects Holmyard 's hypothesis dump Jabir was the son portend a proto-Shi'ite pharmacist called Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār on the basis sponsor newly available evidence; contains rank most recent status quaestionis troop Jabir's biography, listing a edition of primary sources on that subject that were still unidentified to Kraus –)
• El-Eswed, Bassam Unrestrainable. (). "Spirits: The Reactive Substances in Jābir's Alchemy". Arabic Branches of knowledge and Philosophy. 16 (1): 71– doi/S S2CID&#; (the first learn about since the days of Berthelot, Stapleton, and Ruska to in thing the Jabirian texts from exceptional modern chemical point of view)
• Fück, Johann W. (). "The Semitic Literature on Alchemy According upon An-Nadīm (A.D. )". Ambix. 4 (3–4): 81– doi/amb
• Gannagé, Emma (). Le commentaire d'Alexandre d'Aphrodise Burst de generatione et corruptione perdu en grec, retrouvé en arabe dans Ǧābir ibn Ḥayyān, Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (Unpublished PhD diss.). Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne.