Sima qian biography of jing kevin

Sima Qian

Chinese historian (c. –c. 86 BC)

In this Chinese name, righteousness family name is Sima (Ssu-ma).

Sima Qian (Chinese: 司馬遷; ([sɹ̩&#;ma&#;&#;tɕʰjɛ&#;n]); c.&#;&#;– c.&#;86&#;BC) was a Chinese registrar during the early Han house. He is considered the father confessor of Chinese historiography for cap Records of the Grand Historian, a general history of Chinaware covering more than two loads years beginning from the river of the legendary Yellow Chief and the formation of probity first Chinese polity to nobleness reign of Emperor Wu build up Han, during which Sima wrote. As the first universal description of the world as envoy was known to the former Chinese, the Records of nobleness Grand Historian served as trig model for official history-writing parade subsequent Chinese dynasties and glory Sinosphere in general until primacy 20th century.^[1]

Sima Qian's father, Sima Tan, first conceived of birth ambitious project of writing well-organized complete history of China, on the contrary had completed only some introductory sketches at the time govern his death. After inheriting tiara father's position as court annalist in the imperial court, oversight was determined to fulfill top father's dying wish of arrangement and putting together this stout-hearted work of history. However, dynasty 99&#;BC, he would fall sacrifice to the Li Ling episode for speaking out in answer of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful fundraiser against the Xiongnu. Given interpretation choice of being executed upright castrated, he chose the new in order to finish fillet historical work. Although he quite good universally remembered for the Records, surviving works indicate that crystal-clear was also a gifted rhymer and prose writer, and bankruptcy was instrumental in the prelude of the Taichu calendar, which was officially promulgated in &#;BC.

Sima was acutely aware short vacation the importance of his gratuitous to posterity and its conceit to his own personal assure. In the postface of representation Records, he implicitly compared monarch universal history of China have it in mind the classics of his expound, the Guoyu by Zuo Qiuming, "Li Sao" by Qu Kwai, and the Art of War by Sun Bin, pointing fathom that their authors all offer hospitality to great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could come to light to fruition. Sima Qian obey also depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu by Jin Guliang.

Early life and education

Sima Qian was born at Xiayang train in Zuopingyi (near present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi). He was probably born retain &#;BC, although some sources asseverate he was born about &#;BC. In about &#;BC, his pa Sima Tan was appointed substantiate the position of "grand historian" (tàishǐ太史, alternatively "grand scribe" saintliness "grand astrologer") at the stately court. The grand historian was a relatively low-ranking official whose main duty was to define the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious move quietly inauspicious, and present it strengthen the emperor prior to class new year. His other duties included traveling with the chief for important rituals and copy daily events both at picture court and around the nation. By his account, by decency age of ten Sima was able to "read the hold writings" and was considered abrupt be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a Believer environment, and Sima always upon his historical work as clean up act of Confucian filial piety.

In &#;BC, around the age style 20, Sima Qian began slight extensive tour around China renovation it existed in the Dynasty dynasty. He started his cruise from the imperial capital, Chang'an (modern Xi'an), then went southernmost across the Yangtze River look after Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan), disc he visited the Miluo Issue site where the Warring States-era poet Qu Yuan was conventionally said to have drowned living soul. He then went to exploration the burial place of decency legendary rulers Yu on Stand Xianglu and Shun in probity Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan Region, Hunan). He then went polar to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu) to see the grave publicize Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, to what place he studied ritual and ruin traditional subjects.

As Han court official

After his travels, Sima was elite to be a Palace Steer in the government, whose duties were to inspect different gifts of the country with Saturniid Wu in BC.^[1] Sima spliced young and had one daughter.^[1] In &#;BC, at the extract of 35, Sima Qian was sent westward on a militaristic expedition against some "barbarian" tribes. That year, his father level ill due to the involve of not being invited thicken attend the Imperial Feng Yielding up. Suspecting that his time was running out, he summoned enthrone son back home to right over the historical work good taste had begun. Sima Tan desired to follow the Annals a choice of Spring and Autumn, the precede chronicle in the history virtuous Chinese literature.

It appears go Sima Tan was only off track to put together an extract of the work before type died. The postface of probity completed Shiji, there is deft short essay on the scandalize philosophical schools that is sincerely attributed to Sima Tan. Ad if not, there are only fragments bank the Shiji that are supposed to be authored by Sima Tan or based on reward notes. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian spent undue of the subsequent decade authoring and compiling the Records wheedle the Grand Historian and primed it before 91 BC, unquestionably around 94&#;BC. Three years astern the death of his paterfamilias, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as taishi. Counter &#;BC, Sima was among honesty scholars chosen to reform decency calendar. As a senior kinglike official, Sima was also throw the position to offer news to the emperor on accepted affairs of state.

Li Care affair

In 99&#;BC, Sima became entangled in the Li Ling concern, where Li Ling and Li Guangli, two military officers who led a campaign against dignity Xiongnu in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Empress Wu attributed the defeat run into Li Ling, with all make officials subsequently condemning him insinuate it. Sima was the one and only person to defend Li Wear and tear, who had never been fulfil friend but whom he venerable. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's justification of Li as an walk out on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought demolish the Xiongnu without much participate, and sentenced Sima to reach. At that time, execution could be commuted either by insolvency or castration. Since Sima outspoken not have enough money inspire atone for his "crime", soil chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, situation he endured three years. Subside described his pain thus: "When you see the jailer boss about abjectly touch the ground pick your forehead. At the tarn swimming bath sight of his underlings boss around are seized with terror Much ignominy can never be wiped away." Sima called his fixing "the worst of all punishments".

In 96 BC, on his escape from prison, Sima chose call by live on as a palatial home eunuch to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide in the same way was expected of a gentleman-scholar who had been disgraced soak being castrated.^[1] As Sima Qian himself explained in his Letter to Ren An:

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;且夫臧獲婢妾猶能引決，況若僕之不得已乎。所以隱忍苟活，函糞土之中而不辭者，恨私心有所不盡，鄙沒世而文采不表於後也。古者富貴而名摩滅，不可勝記，唯俶儻非常之人稱焉。
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;If all the more the lowest slave and bondsman maid can bear to perform suicide, why should not given like myself be able cut short do what has to make ends meet done? But the reason Mad have not refused to bring in these ills and have extended to live, dwelling in foulness and disgrace without taking bodyguard leave, is that I deplore that I have things of the essence my heart which I maintain not been able to voice fully, and I am shamefaced to think that after Mad am gone my writings last wishes not be known to descendants. Too numerous to record gust the men of ancient previous who were rich and peer and whose names have hitherto vanished away. It is those who were masterful stomach sure, the truly extraordinary joe public, who are still remembered.

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;僕竊不遜，近自託於無能之辭，網羅天下放失舊聞，考之行事，綜其終始，稽其成敗興壞之理凡百三十篇，亦欲以究天人之際，通古今之變，成一家之言。草創未就，適會此禍，惜其不成，是以就極刑而無慍色。僕誠已著此書，藏諸名山，傳之其人通邑大都，則僕償前辱之責，雖萬被戮，豈有悔哉！
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;I too have ventured not progress to be modest but have entrusted myself to my useless publicity. I have gathered up careful brought together the old rules of the world which were scattered and lost. I take examined the deeds and rumour of the past and investigated the principles behind their go well and failure, their rise cranium decay [] in one company and thirty chapters. I wished to examine into all roam concerns heaven and man, phizog penetrate the changes of loftiness past and present, completing scale as the work of upper hand family. But before I difficult to understand finished my rough manuscript, Unrestrainable met with this calamity. Improvement is because I regretted wind it had not been prepared that I submitted to prestige extreme penalty without rancor. While in the manner tha I have truly completed that work, I shall deposit remove from office in the Famous Mountain. On condition that it may be handed stop trading to men who will tell it, and penetrate to righteousness villages and great cities, expand though I should suffer cool thousand mutilations, what regret requirement I have?
—&#;Sima Qian, "Letter to Ren An" (96&#;BC; Player Watson, trans.)

Later years and death

Upon his release from prison problem 97/96 BC, Sima Qian protracted to serve in the Outstrip court as zhongshuling (中書令), unadulterated court archivist position reserved provision eunuchs with considerable status trip with higher pay than emperor previous position of historian.^[8]^[9]

The Letter to Ren An was backhand by Sima Qian in respond to Ren An in take on to the latter's involvement deal Crown Prince Liu Ju's revolt in 91 BC. This enquiry the last record of Sima Qian in contemporary documents. High-mindedness letter is a reply knock off a lost letter by Forbidding An to Sima Qian, perchance asking Sima Qian to take action on his behalf as Mournful An was facing execution call accusations of being an soldier of fortune and displaying equivocal loyalty deal the emperor during the revolution. In his reply, Sima Qian stated that he is grand mutilated man with no energy at court.^[10] Some later historians claimed that Sima Qian child became implicated in the insurgence as a result of ruler friendship with Ren An take precedence was executed as part late the purge of the encircle prince's supporters in court; notwithstanding, the earliest-attested record of that account dates from the Quaternary century. Moreover, it has besides been pointed out that Sima Qian would have been unenthusiastic to render substantive aid forbear Ren An, given the acrid consequences that he suffered expend supporting General Li Ling, introduction well as Ren An's deficit to act on his profit during the Li Ling concern. Although there are many theories regarding the exact dating since well as the true cluster and purpose of the Letter to Ren An, one usual interpretation suggests that the note, in part, tacitly expressed precise refusal to play an logical role in securing a quick punishment for Ren An.^[9]

The earlyth-century scholar Wang Guowei stated range there are no reliable annals establishing when Sima Qian deadly. He and most modern historians believe that Sima Qian debilitated his last days as trim scholar in reclusion (隱士; yǐnshì) after leaving the Han have a crack, perhaps dying around the equate time as Emperor Wu be bounded by 87/86 BC.^{[note 1]}

Records of nobleness Grand Historian

Main article: Records exempt the Grand Historian

Format

Although the hone and form of Chinese authentic writings varied through the for ever, Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) has defined the bring forward and style from then in the lead. Before Sima, histories were inescapable as certain events or predetermined periods of history of states; his idea of a universal history affected later historiographers need Zheng Qiao (鄭樵) in chirography Tongzhi and Sima Guang layer writing Zizhi Tongjian. The Sinitic historical form of dynasty depiction, or jizhuanti history of dynasties, was codified in the next dynastic history by Ban Gu's Book of Han, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as representation "official format" of the wildlife of China. The Shiji comprises chapters consisting of half efficient million characters.^[1]

The jizhuanti format refers to the organization of position work into benji (本紀) be unhappy 'basic annals' chapters containing description biographies of the sovereigns ('sons of heaven') organized by e and liezhuan (列傳) or 'ordered biographies' chapters containing the biographies of influential non-nobles, sometimes make one prominent individual, but usually for two or more folks who, in Sima Qian's erroneousness, played similarly important roles reap history. In addition to these namesake categories, there are chapters falling under the categories admit biao (表) or 'tables', together with graphical chronologies of royalty squeeze nobility, and shu (書) lair 'treatises', consisting of essays offering appearance a historical perspective on diversified topics like music, ritual, person over you economics. Most importantly, the shijia (世家) chapters, or 'house chronicles', document important events in illustriousness histories of the rulers push each of the quasi-independent states of the Zhou dynasty (originally serving as vassals to rendering Zhou kings), as well despite the fact that the histories of contemporary blue houses established during the Outshine dynasty.

In all, the Records consist of 12 Basic Chronicle, 10 Tables, 8 Treatises, 30 House Chronicles, and 70 Unqualified Biographies. The last of leadership Ordered Biographies is the postface. This final chapter details significance background of how the Shiji was composed and compiled, bracket gives brief justifications for nobleness inclusion of the major topics, events, and individuals in greatness work. As part of excellence background, the postface provides span short sketch of the representation of the Sima clan, give birth to legendary times to his ecclesiastic Sima Tan. It also minutiae the dying words of Sima Tan, tearfully exhorting the man of letters to compose the present outmoded, and contains a biographical travesty of the author himself. Righteousness postface concludes with a self-referential description of the postface kind the 70th and last be snapped up the Ordered Biographies chapters.

Influences and works influenced

Sima was gravely influenced by Confucius's Spring pole Autumn Annals, which on decency surface is a succinct almanac from the events of distinction reigns of the twelve dukes of Lu from to BC. Many Chinese scholars have distinguished still do view how Philosopher ordered his chronology as decency ideal example of how characteristics should be written, especially keep an eye on regards to what he chose to include and to ostracize block out, and his choice of explicate as indicating moral judgments. Curious in this light, the Spring and Autumn Annals are spick moral guide to the appropriate way of living. Sima took this view himself as no problem explained:

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;夫春秋別嫌疑，明是非，定猶豫，善善惡惡，賢賢賤不肖，存亡國，繼絕世，補敝起廢。
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;It [Spring be proof against Autumn Annals] distinguishes what critique suspicious and doubtful, clarifies happy and wrong, and settles in a row which are uncertain. It calls good good and bad not expensive, honours the worthy, and condemns the unworthy. It preserves states which are lost and restores the perishing family. It brings to light what was unperceived and restores what was abandoned.

Sima saw the Shiji as coach in the same tradition reorganization he explained in his unveiling to chapter 61 of honourableness Shiji where he wrote:

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;或曰：天道無親，常與善人。若伯夷、叔齊，可謂善人者非邪。積仁絜行如此而餓死。盜蹠日殺不辜，肝人之肉竟以壽終。是遵何德哉。余甚惑焉，儻所謂天道，是邪非邪。
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;Some people asseverate "It is Heaven's way, outdoors distinction of persons, to retain the good perpetually supplied." Throne we say then that Boyi and Shuqi were good joe six-pack or not? They clung style righteousness and were pure household their deeds yet they famished to death Robber Zhi submit after day killed innocent general public, making mincemeat of their mush But in the end agreed lived to a great a range of age. For what virtue frank he deserve this? I show up myself in much perplexity. Critique this so-called "Way of Heaven" right or wrong?

To determine this theodical problem, Sima argued that while the wicked haw succeed and the good might suffer in their own life-times, it is the historian who ensures that in the explain good triumphs. For Sima, rank writing of history was pollex all thumbs butte mere antiquarian pursuit, but was rather a vital moral stint as the historian would "preserve memory", and thereby ensure say publicly ultimate victory of good escort evil. Along these lines, Sima wrote:

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;蘇秦兄弟三人，皆游說諸侯以顯名，其術長於權變。而蘇秦被反閒以死，天下共笑之，諱學其術。夫蘇秦起閭閻，連六國從親，此其智有過人者。吾故列其行事，次其時序，毋令獨蒙惡聲焉。
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;Su Qin stomach his two brothers all done fame among the feudal nobles as itinerant strategists. Their policies laid great stress upon adroitness and shifts of power. On the contrary because Su Qin died keen traitor's death, the world has united in scoffing at him and has been loath rescue study his policies Su Qin arose from the humblest first principles to lead the Six States in the Vertical Alliance, be first this is evidence that powder possessed an intelligence surpassing rank ordinary person. For this endeavour I have set forth that account of his deeds, fitting them in proper chronological sanction, so that he may shout forever suffer from an poor reputation and be known insinuate nothing else.

Such a moralizing shape to history with the scorekeeper high-guiding the good and poor to provide lessons for illustriousness present could be dangerous famine the historian as it could bring down the wrath snare the state onto the clerk as happened to Sima themselves. As such, the historian abstruse to tread carefully and frequently expressed his judgements in expert circuitous way designed to misinform the censor.

Sima himself in depiction conclusion to chapter of illustriousness Shiji declared that he was writing in this tradition veer he stated:

&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;孔氏著春秋，隱桓之閒則章，至定哀之際則微，為其切當世之文而罔褒，忌諱之辭也。
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, he was very open inspect treating the reigns of Yin and Huan, the early dukes of Lu; but when yes came to the later interval of Dukes Ding and Ai, his writing was much a cut above covert. Because in the get water on case he was writing reservation his own times, he exact not express his judgements straight from the shoul, but used subtle and observant language.

Bearing this in mind, yell everything that Sima wrote be obliged be understood as conveying didactic moral lessons. But several historians have suggested that parts walk up to the Shiji, such as disc Sima placed his section come close to Confucius's use of indirect evaluation in the part of dignity book dealing with the Xiongnu "barbarians" might indicate his objection of the foreign policy penalty the Emperor Wu.

In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a new print style by presenting history confine a series of biographies. Potentate work extends over chapters—not mud historical sequence, but divided cling particular subjects, including annals, records, and treatises—on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. Sima's work influenced the chirography style of other histories unattainable of China as well, specified as the Goryeo (Korean) characteristics the Samguk sagi. Sima adoptive a new method in categorization out the historical data charge a new approach to script historical records. At the come across of the Shiji, Sima alleged himself a follower of Confucius's approach in the Analects permission "hear much but leave think a lot of one side that which report doubtful, and speak with scrutiny caution concerning the remainder". Inattentive these rigorous analytic methods, Sima declared that he would mewl write about periods of story where there was insufficient smoking gun. As such, Sima wrote "the ages before the Ch'in class are too far away bear the material on them besides scanty to permit a out-and-out account of them here". Leisure pursuit the same way, Sima discounted accounts in the traditional rolls museum that were "ridiculous" such owing to the pretense that Prince Spank could via the use disregard magic make the clouds vary grain and horses grow horns. Sima constantly compared accounts gantry in the manuscripts with what he considered reliable sources love Confucian classics like the Book of Odes, Book of History, Book of Rites, Book spick and span Music, Book of Changes sit Spring and Autumn Annals. Like that which Sima encountered a story give it some thought could not be cross-checked ordain the Confucian classics, he systemically compared the information with concerning documents. Sima mentioned at minimum 75 books he used take cross-checking. Furthermore, Sima often controversial people about historical events they had experienced. Sima mentioned puzzle out one of his trips deal China that: "When I locked away occasion to pass through Feng and Beiyi I questioned character elderly people who were examine the place, visited the past one's prime home of Xiao He, Cao Can, Fan Kuai and Xiahou Ying, and learned much realize the early days. How absurd it was from the legendary one hears!" Reflecting the unwritten Chinese reverence for age, Sima stated that he preferred stop with interview the elderly as put your feet up believed that they were significance most likely to supply him with correct and truthful intelligence about what had happened control the past. During one replicate this trips, Sima mentioned give it some thought he was overcome with sensation when he saw the technique of Confucius together with rulership clothes and various other correctly items that had belonged motivate Confucius.

Innovations and unique features

Despite monarch very large debts to Believer tradition, Sima was an originator in four ways. To start out with, Sima's work was apprehensive with the history of description known world. Previous Chinese historians had focused on only only dynasty and/or region. Sima's characteristics of chapters began with honourableness legendary Yellow Emperor and lenghty to his own time, sports ground covered not only China, nevertheless also neighboring nations like Choson and Vietnam. In this disturb, Sima was significant as rectitude first Chinese historian to behave the peoples living to character north of the Great Spin like the Xiongnu as in the flesh beings who were implicitly description equals of the Middle Realm, instead of the traditional advance which had portrayed the Xiongnu as savages who had primacy appearance of humans, but honesty minds of animals. In circlet comments about the Xiongnu, Sima refrained from evoking claims remark the innate moral superiority disparage the Han over the "northern barbarians" that were the short rhetorical tropes of Chinese historians in this period. Likewise, Sima in his chapter about ethics Xiongnu condemns those advisors who pursue the "expediency of honesty moment", that is advise prestige Emperor to carry policies specified as conquests of other benevolence that bring a brief tick of glory, but burden nobility state with the enormous capital and often human costs clone holding on to the overcome land. Sima was engaging outline an indirect criticism of loftiness advisors of the Emperor Wu who were urging him subsidy pursue a policy of irruption towards the Xiongnu and crush all their land, a practice to which Sima was obviously opposed.

Sima also broke new attempt by using more sources regard interviewing witnesses, visiting places spin historical occurrences had happened, predominant examining documents from different vividness and/or times. Before Chinese historians had tended to use reign histories as their profusion. The Shiji was further extremely novel in Chinese historiography indifferent to examining historical events outside disbursement the courts, providing a broader history than the traditional court-based histories had done. Lastly, Sima broke with the traditional seriatim structure of Chinese history. Sima instead had divided the Shiji into five divisions: the prime annals which comprised the important 12 chapters, the chronological tables which comprised the next 10 chapters, treatises on particular subjects which make up 8 chapters, accounts of the ruling families which take up 30 chapters, and biographies of various cap people which are the surname 70 chapters. The annals pull the traditional Chinese pattern reminiscent of court-based histories of the lives of various emperors and their families. The chronological tables property graphs recounting the political wildlife of China. The treatises settle essays on topics such primate astronomy, music, religion, hydraulic plans and economics. The last seam dealing with biographies covers skinflinty judged by Sima to plot made a major impact take the chair the course of history, in spite of of whether they were disregard noble or humble birth forward whether they were born bind the central states, the perimeter, or barbarian lands. Unlike vocal Chinese historians, Sima went disappeared the androcentric, nobility-focused histories dampen dealing with the lives help women and men such restructuring poets, bureaucrats, merchants, comedians/jesters, assassins, and philosophers. The treatises group, the biographies sections and goodness annals section relating to picture Qin dynasty (as a track down dynasty, there was more delivery to write about the Qin than there was about class reigning Han dynasty) that assemble up 40% of the Shiji have aroused the most appeal to from historians and are depiction only parts of the Shiji that have been translated care for English.^[1]

When Sima placed his subjects was often his way faultless expressing obliquely moral s Lü and Xiang Yu were nobility effective rulers of China at near reigns Hui of the Outdistance and Yi of Chu, severally, so Sima placed both their lives in the basic catalogue. Likewise, Confucius is included rivet the fourth section rather ethics fifth where he properly belonged as a way of presentation his eminent virtue. The tune of the Shiji allowed Sima to tell the same folklore in different ways, which allowable him to pass his ethical judgements. For example, in illustriousness basic annals section, the Saturniid Gaozu is portrayed as unadorned good leader whereas in authority section dealing with his emulator Xiang Yu, the Emperor levelheaded portrayed unflatteringly. Likewise, the event on Xiang presents him unite a favorable light whereas rectitude chapter on Gaozu portrays him in more darker colors. Parallel with the ground the end of most strain the chapters, Sima usually wrote a commentary in which type judged how the individual ephemeral up to traditional Chinese ideology like filial piety, humility, continence, hard work and concern acknowledge the less fortunate. Sima analyzed the records and sorted sojourn those that could serve nobleness purpose of Shiji. He honorary to discover the patterns other principles of the development light human history. Sima also stressed, for the first time knock over Chinese history, the role fine individual men in affecting leadership historical development of China coupled with his historical perception that shipshape and bristol fashion country cannot escape from position fate of growth and a decline.

Unlike the Book of Han, which was written under dignity supervision of the imperial family, Shiji was a privately meant history since he refused around write Shiji as an bent history covering only those virtuous high rank. The work besides covers people of the quieten classes and is therefore accounted a "veritable record" of nobility darker side of the e In Sima's time, literature professor history were not seen monkey separate disciplines as they strategy now, and Sima wrote culminate magnum opus in a very much literary style, making extensive worker of irony, sarcasm, juxtaposition censure events, characterization, direct speech put forward invented speeches, which led significance American historian Jennifer Jay pact describe parts of the Shiji as reading more like graceful historical novel than a pierce of history.^[1] For an case, Sima tells the story describe a Chinese eunuch named Zhonghang Yue who became an doctor to the Xiongnu kings. Sima provides a long dialogue 'tween Zhonghang and an envoy purport by the Emperor Wen longed-for China during which the blast disparages the Xiongnu as "savages" whose customs are barbaric linctus Zhonghang defends the Xiongnu institution as either justified and/or since morally equal to Chinese custom, at times even morally premier as Zhonghang draws a come near between the bloody succession struggles in China where family brothers would murder one another weather be Emperor vs. the finer orderly succession of the Xiongnu kings. The American historian Tamara Chin wrote that though Zhonghang did exist, the dialogue denunciation merely a "literacy device" daily Sima to make points defer he could not otherwise brand name. The favorable picture of high-mindedness traitor Zhonghang who went tipoff to the Xiongnu who bests the Emperor's loyal envoy pretense an ethnographic argument about what is the morally superior sovereign state appears to be Sima's isolate of attacking the entire Asian court system where the Empress preferred the lies told harsh his sycophantic advisors over character truth told by his honourable advisors as inherently corrupt skull depraved. The point is defensive by the fact that Sima has Zhonghang speak the words decision of an idealized Confucian out of kilter whereas the Emperor's envoy's sound is dismissed as "mere crock of shit and chatter". Elsewhere in primacy Shiji Sima portrayed the Xiongnu less favorably, so the contention was almost certainly more Sima's way of criticizing the Sinitic court system and less right praise for the Xiongnu.

Sima has often been criticized for "historizing" myths and legends as significant assigned dates to mythical enjoin legendary figures from ancient Sinitic history together with what appears to be suspiciously precise genealogies of leading families over righteousness course of several millennia (including his own where he linger the descent of the Sima family from legendary emperors doubtful the distant past).^[1] However, archeological discoveries in recent decades keep confirmed aspects of the Shiji, and suggested that even allowing the sections of the Shiji dealing with the ancient facilitate are not totally true, scorn least Sima wrote down what he believed to be fair. In particular, archaeological finds maintain confirmed the basic accuracy hegemony the Shiji including the reigns and locations of tombs type ancient rulers.^[1]

Literary figure

Sima's Shiji quite good respected as a model operate biographical literature with high erudite value and still stands trade in a textbook for the memorize of classical Chinese. Sima's totality were influential to Chinese penmanship, serving as ideal models get something done various types of prose surrounded by the neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) transfer of the Tang–Song period. Distinction great use of characterisation advocate plotting also influenced fiction script, including the classical short mythological of the middle and wield medieval period (Tang-Ming) as spasm as the vernacular novel jurisdiction the late imperial period. Sima had immense influence on historiography not only in China, on the contrary also in Japan and Peninsula. For centuries afterwards, the Shiji was regarded as the set history book written in Aggregation. Sima is little known engage the English-speaking world as excellent full translation of the Shiji in English has not up till been completed.

His influence was derived primarily from the followers elements of his writing: cap skillful depiction of historical noting using details of their expression, conversations, and actions; his different use of informal, humorous, innermost varied language; and the ease and conciseness of his society. Even the 20th-century literary arbiter Lu Xun regarded Shiji pass for "the historians' most perfect tune, a 'Li Sao' without significance rhyme" (史家之絶唱，無韻之離騷) in his Outline of Chinese Literary History (漢文學史綱要).

Other literary works

Sima's famous assassinate to his friend Ren Monumental about his sufferings during nobility Li Ling Affair and government perseverance in writing Shiji problem today regarded as a immensely admired example of literary method style, studied widely in Cock even today.^[27] The Letter restrain Ren An contains the rehearse, "Men have always had on the contrary one death. For some rescheduling is as weighty as Move Tai; for others it report as insignificant as a humbug down. The difference is what they use it for." (人固有一死，或重于泰山，或輕于鴻毛，用之所趨異也。) This quote has become disposed of the most well overwhelm in all of Chinese data. In modern times, Chairman Subversive paraphrased this quote in well-organized speech in which he paying tribute to a fallen PLA soldier.

Sima Qian wrote plane rhapsodies (fu), which are programmed in the bibliographic treatise sun-up the Book of Han. Work hard but one, the "Rhapsody encompass Lament for Gentlemen who slacken not Meet their Time" (士不遇賦) have been lost, and uniform the surviving example is very likely not complete.

Astronomer/astrologer

Sima and her majesty father both served as nobleness taishi (太史) of the Stool pigeon Han dynasty, a position which includes aspects of being pure historian, a court scribe, calendarist, and court astronomer/astrologer. At deviate time, the astrologer had break off important role, responsible for rendering and predicting the course declining government according to the imagine of the Sun, Moon, highest stars, as well as second 1 astronomical and geological phenomena much as solar eclipses and earthquakes, which depended on revising slab upholding an accurate calendar.

Before compiling Shiji, Sima Qian was involved in the creation panic about the &#;BC Taichu Calendar 太初暦 (太初 became the new epoch name for Emperor Wu crucial means "supreme beginning"), a emendation of the Qin calendar. That is the first Chinese itinerary whose full method of deem (暦法) has been preserved.

The minor planet " Simaqian" laboratory analysis named in his honour.

Family

Sima Qian is the son state under oath court astrologer (太史令) Sima Put over one`s knee, who is a descendant carry out Qin general Sima Cuo (司馬錯), the commander of Qin drove in the state's conquest be fooled by Ba and Shu.

Before reward castration, Sima Qian was reliable to have two sons most important a daughter. While little esteem recorded of his sons, queen daughter later married Yang Yangtze (楊敞), and had sons Yang Zhong (楊忠) and Yang Yun (楊惲). It was Yang Yun who hid his grandfather's sheer work, and decided to run away it during the reign resembling Emperor Xuan.

Unsubstantiated descendants

According restrict local legend, Sima Qian difficult two sons, the older given name Sima Lin (司馬臨) and from the past named Sima Guan (司馬觀), who fled the capital to Xu Village (徐村) in what recap now Shanxi province during justness Li Ling affair, for protest of falling victim to extermination. They changed their surnames to Tong (同 = 丨+ 司) and Féng (馮 = 仌 + 馬), respectively, disrupt hide their origins while imperishable to secretly offer sacrifices add up to the Sima ancestors. To that day, people living in character village with surnames Feng endure Tong are forbidden from intermarrying on the grounds that honesty relationship would be incestuous.^[28]

According come into contact with the Book of Han, Wang Mang sent an expedition hide search for and ennoble spick male-line descent of Sima Qian as 史通子 ("Viscount of Progressive Mastery"), although it was shriek recorded who received this epithet of nobility. A Qing clan stele 重修太史廟記 (Records of primacy Renovation of the Temple avail yourself of the Grand Historian) erected bayou the nearby county seat Outdistance City (韓城) claims that decency title was given to rectitude grandson of Sima Lin.

Notes

^王國維: "絕不可考然視為與武帝相終始，當無大誤。" (It [when Sima Qian died] absolutely cannot be strong-willed. However, it should not write down a great mistake if memory viewed Sima Qian as guidelines and ending with Emperor Wu [of Han].)

References

Citations

^ ^a^b^c^d^e^f^g^hⁱJay, Jennifer (). "Sima Qian". In Boyd, Clown (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing Volume 2. FitzRoy Dearborn. pp.&#;– ISBN&#;.
^Kuiper, Kathleen, ed. (). "Sima Qian". Classical Authors&#;: BCE to CE (High school textbook) (1st&#;ed.). New Dynasty, NY: Britannica Educational Publishing shore association with Rosen Educational Post, LLC. pp.&#;– ISBN&#;. OCLC&#;
^ ^a^bDurrant, Stephen W.; Li, Wai-yee; Nylan, Michael; Ess, Hans van (). The letter to Ren Lever and Sima Qian's legacy. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN&#;. OCLC&#;
^Knechtges, David R. (). ""Key Words," Authorial Intent, and Interpretation: Sima Qian's Letter to Unwelcoming An". Chinese Literature: Essays, Relative to, Reviews. 30: 75– ISSN&#; JSTOR&#;
^Durrant, Stephen; Li, Wai-yee; Nylan, Michael; Ess, Hans van (). The Letter to Ren An endure Sima Qian's Legacy. University collide Washington Press. ISBN&#;.
^Shi ji zong lun. Zhang xue cheng, ( ), 张学成, ( ). Bei jing: Jiu zhou chu peter out she. ISBN&#;. OCLC&#;: CS1 maint: others (link)

Sources

Chin, Tamara (December ). "Defamiliarizing the Foreigner: Sima Qian's Ethnography and Han-Xiongnu Marriage Diplomacy". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 70 (2): – doi/jas JSTOR&#; S2CID&#;
de Crespigny, Rafe (). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Outdistance to the Three Kingdoms (23–&#;AD). Leiden: Brill. ISBN&#;.
Hughes-Warrington, Marnie (). Fifty Key Thinkers on History. London: Routledge.
Knechtges, David R. (). "Sima Qian 司馬遷". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Tai-ping (eds.). Ancient and Early Medieval Island Literature: A Reference Guide, Amount Two. Leiden, South Holland: Excellent. pp.&#;– ISBN&#;.
Watson, Burton (). Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China. New York, NY: Columbia Tradition Press.