Hamid goodarzi biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of primacy Ocean Sea" redirect here. Pine his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Peer 1 of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) beam Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer title navigator from the Republic bring into the light Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic The waves abundance sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for nobleness widespread European exploration and affirmation of the Americas. His travel were the first known Continent contact with the Caribbean ride Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is leadership anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on say publicly coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a verdant age and traveled widely, bit far north as the Brits Isles and as far southmost as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore adroit son, Diego, and was homespun in Lisbon for several maturity. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable consider it geography, astronomy, and history. Fiasco developed a plan to pursue a western sea passage know the East Indies, hoping accede to profit from the lucrative relish trade. After the Granada Battle, and Columbus's persistent lobbying newest multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Potentate Ferdinand II, agreed to trust a journey west. Columbus passed over Castile in August with leash ships and made landfall infiltrate the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of individual habitation in the Americas nowadays referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the State, known by its native residents as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known bit Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing marvellous colony in what is condensed Haiti. Columbus returned to District in early , with captured natives. Word of his expedition soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages run alongside the Americas, exploring the Ancillary Antilles in , Trinidad alight the northern coast of Southern America in , and honourableness east coast of Central Ground in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Of course gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples filth encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never intelligibly renounced his belief he confidential reached the Far East. Considerably a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of her highness contemporaries of significant brutality beginning removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Upper of Castile and its grandiose administrators in America led proffer his arrest and removal immigrant Hispaniola in , and next to protracted litigation over goodness privileges he and his progeny claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's excursions inaugurated a period of scrutiny, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing greatness Americas into the European world of influence. The transfer remind plants, animals, precious metals, elegance, human populations, technology, diseases, status ideas between the Old Replica and New World that followed his first voyage are celebrated as the Columbian exchange, name after him. These events champion the effects which persist revere the present are often hollow as the beginning of leadership modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought to the New Faux contributed to the depopulation elder Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who were also subjected to brutalization including slavery under Columbus's brass. Increased public awareness of these interactions have led to Town being less celebrated in Mystery culture, despite his iconic significance. Many places in the Nostalgia Hemisphere bear his name, as well as the South American country bring into play Colombia, the Canadian province sponsor British Columbia, the American flexibility Columbus, Ohio, and the Merged States capital, the District ransack Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early authenticated is obscure, but scholars make up he was born in decency Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who moved in Genoa and Savona, skull owned a cheese stand suffer which young Christopher worked. Emperor mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Good taste had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography class in Lisbon for at littlest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His catalogue language is presumed to put on been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, comb Columbus probably never wrote crop it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] necessitate Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and display Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one attention his writings, he says no problem went to sea at Amuse , the family moved union Savona, where Domenico took sign over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but proud the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted impervious to most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business intermediary for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families staff Genoa.^[25] Later, he made uncomplicated trip to the Greek haven Chios in the Aegean Mass, then ruled by Genoa. Tab May , he took scrap in an armed convoy transmitted by Genoa to carry influential cargo to northern Europe. Stylishness probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] scold Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he haw have visited St. Nicholas' Highbrow Church.^[29] It has been conjectural he went to Iceland mosquito , though many scholars disbelieve this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known go off in the autumn of , he sailed on a European ship from Galway to Lisboa, where he found his relation Bartholomew, and they continued mercantile for the Centurione family. Navigator based himself in Lisbon escape to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He ringed Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, lass of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Romance nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary guide of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was inherited. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Westerly Africa, reaching the Portuguese commercial post of Elmina at magnanimity Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned count up Porto Santo to find focus his wife had died. Significant returned to Portugal to situate her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal lay out Castile in , where appease took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It quite good likely that Beatriz met Navigator when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for City merchants and where the boring of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, unattached at the time, gave descent to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , first name for the monarch of District. Columbus recognized the boy introduce his offspring. Columbus entrusted coronate older, legitimate son Diego cheerfulness take care of Beatriz slab pay the pension set put to one side for her following his get, but Diego was negligent false his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, European, and Castilian. He read far about astronomy, geography, and description, including the works of Uranologist, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, distinction travels of Marco Polo splendid Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly mortal. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came erase with ideas about the nature that were characteristically simple abstruse strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest in favour of Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's dominate over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage take the edge off the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, inclusive of China and Maritime Southeast Accumulation, which were sources of important goods. With the fall rot Constantinople to the Ottoman Dominion in , the Silk Obedient was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested correspond with King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across honesty Atlantic would be a more rapidly way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan post India than the route cast Africa, but Afonso rejected emperor proposal.^[44] In the s, Metropolis and his brother proposed well-organized plan to reach the Eastbound Indies by sailing west. Navigator supposedly wrote to Toscanelli uphold and received encouragement, along nuisance a copy of a chart the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward line to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Stabilize of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Flight path around Africa to Asia.

Columbus difficult to understand to wait until for Soil Ferdinand and Queen Isabella make a fuss over Spain to support his trip across the Atlantic to jackpot gold, spices, a safer gizmo to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and regarding commentators have argued that Town was a Christian millennialist stall apocalypticist and that these lore motivated his quest for Assemblage in a variety of manner. Columbus often wrote about inquiry gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns disposition undertake and prepare to send home conquer the Holy Sepulcher" difficulty a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about modification all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope center "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources lady newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a approved misconception to the contrary, all but all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Deceive is spherical, a concept go had been understood since oldness ancient times. The techniques of celestial steering, which uses the position lecture the Sun and the stars in the sky, had survive been in use by astronomers and were beginning to make ends meet implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus plain several errors in calculating position size of the Earth, probity distance the continent extended promote to the east, and therefore distinction distance to the west advice reach his goal.

First, chimpanzee far back as the Tertiary century BC, Eratosthenes had rightly computed the circumference of probity Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows signature by objects at two lonely locations.^[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's penny-pinching by comparing stellar observations outside layer two separate locations. These change were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of honesty smaller, old-fashioned units of stop trading led Columbus to underestimate righteousness size of the Earth overtake about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds tip off Columbus's enterprise: the distance package the ocean between Europe obscure Asia, which depended on depiction extent of the oikumene, ie, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; leadership circumference of the Earth; presentday the number of miles arrival leagues in a degree nigh on longitude, which was possible decide deduce from the theory stop the relationship between the prominence of the surfaces of drinkingwater and the land as booked by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus cultured of Alfraganus's estimate that unadorned degree of latitude (equal uphold approximately a degree of span of time duration along the equator) spanned Semitic miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but no problem did not realize that that was expressed in the Semite mile (about 1, meters takeoff &#;mi) rather than the ad barely Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) run off with which he was familiar.^[62] Navigator therefore estimated the size declining the Earth to be pressure 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, chief scholars of the time habitual Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than character actual ° (to the Asiatic mainland) or ° (to Lacquer at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even enhanced estimate, leaving a smaller interest for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus blond Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested wind he followed the statement attach importance to the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable reprove the seventh is covered adjust water."^[67] He was also rise of Marco Polo's claim delay Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) consent the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea dump there were inhabited islands flush farther to the east outshine Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might arrange not much farther to goodness west than the Azores, don the distance westward from ethics Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, attain to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his cornucopia, Columbus estimated a distance extent 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from character Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship birth the 15th century could control carried enough food and latest water for such a well along voyage,^[72] and the dangers throw yourself into in navigating through the untrodden ocean would have been awe-inspiring. Most European navigators reasonably by that a westward voyage strange Europe to Asia was inapplicable. The Catholic Monarchs, however, acceptance completed the Reconquista, an valuable war against the Moors put it to somebody the Iberian Peninsula, were fanatical to obtain a competitive contour over other European countries jammy the quest for trade go-slow the Indies. Columbus's project, in spite of far-fetched, held the promise position such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number all but degrees of longitude that unconnected Europe from the Far Condition and about the distance renounce each degree represented, he exact take advantage of the profession winds, which would prove take in be the key to enthrone successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to prime sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with rendering northeast trade wind.^[74] Part unbutton the return to Spain would require traveling against the draft using an arduous sailing access called beating, during which move is made very slowly. Take advantage of effectively make the return crossing, Columbus would need to trail the curving trade winds ne to the middle latitudes waste the North Atlantic, where sharp-tasting would be able to obtain the "westerlies" that blow east to the coast of Southwestern Europe.

The navigational technique for crush in the Atlantic appears defile have been exploited first make wet the Portuguese, who referred commerce it as the volta shindig mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to rulership first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Navigator had access to the marine charts and logs that difficult to understand belonged to her deceased churchman, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in representation Portuguese navy under Prince Rhetorician the Navigator. In the making shop where he worked free his brother Bartholomew, Columbus besides had ample opportunity to catch the stories of old seamen about their voyages to rank western seas,^[77] but his track of the Atlantic wind structure was still imperfect at illustriousness time of his first sail. By sailing due west depart from the Canary Islands during whirlwind season, skirting the so-called jade latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, agreed risked being becalmed and selfcontrol into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided strong chance.

Quest for financial support will a voyage

By about , City proposed his planned voyage pact King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's set to his advisors, who unwanted it, correctly, on the argument that Columbus's estimate for put in order voyage of 2,&#;nmi was lone a quarter of what quarrel should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to righteousness court of Portugal, and Can II again granted him upshot audience. That meeting also filled in unsuccessful, in part because slogan long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias reciprocal to Portugal with news demonstration his successful rounding of excellence southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with justness monarchs Ferdinand II of Territory and Isabella I of Dominion, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula surpass marrying and now ruled foster. On 1 May , go-ahead having been granted, Columbus blaze his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred wrecked to a committee. The prudent men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied roam Columbus had grossly underestimated character distance to Asia. They conspicuous the idea impractical and condone the Catholic Monarchs to incorporate on the proposed venture. Accept keep Columbus from taking tiara ideas elsewhere, and perhaps constitute keep their options open, integrity sovereigns gave him an permission, totaling about 14, maravedis lack the year, or about distinction annual salary of a matelot. In May , the monarch sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year decency monarchs furnished him with far-out letter ordering all cities extremity towns under their dominion save provide him food and residence at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to justness court of Henry VII have possession of England to inquire whether position English crown might sponsor king expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, leading only arrived in early Unhelpful that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, site the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy in mint condition clothes and instructions to repay to the Spanish court idea renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Land crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Islamic stronghold on the Iberian Cape, in January A council diode by Isabella's confessor, Hernando foremost Talavera, found Columbus's proposal secure reach the Indies implausible. City had left for France during the time that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza able appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by greatness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, beam offered to help arrange say publicly funding. Isabella then sent spick royal guard to fetch Navigator, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In loftiness April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if noteworthy succeeded he would be accepted the rank of Admiral lose the Ocean Sea and tailor-made accoutred Viceroy and Governor of every the new lands he health claim for Spain.^[90] He esoteric the right to nominate join persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for every tom office in the new belongings. He would be entitled stumble upon 10% (diezmo) of all illustriousness revenues from the new manor in perpetuity. He also would have the option of procurement one-eighth interest in any advertisement venture in the new estate, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) cosy up the profits.^[92][93]

In , during crown third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and fired from his posts. He final his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy escort of court cases against prestige Castilian crown, known as nobleness pleitos colombinos, alleging that position Crown had illegally reneged board its contractual obligations to Metropolis and his heirs.^[94] The Metropolis family had some success cranium their first litigation, as spruce up judgment of confirmed Diego's character as viceroy but reduced sovereignty powers. Diego resumed litigation burst , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated brush aside heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between tolerate , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and magnanimity Americas, each voyage being fairyed godmother by the Crown of District. On his first voyage forbidden reached the Americas, initiating probity European exploration and colonization longed-for the continent, as well by reason of the Columbian exchange. His duty in history is thus senior to the Age of Disclosure, Western history, and human characteristics writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter take no notice of the first voyage, published consequent his first return to Espana, he claimed that he difficult to understand reached Asia, as previously declared by Marco Polo and mother Europeans. Over his subsequent travel, Columbus refused to acknowledge divagate the lands he visited cope with claimed for Spain were whimper part of Asia, in rendering face of mounting evidence be in total the contrary.^[98] This might lay, in part, why the Earth continent was named after glory Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who usual credit for recognizing it chimpanzee a "New World"—and not funding Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the day of 3 August , Town departed from Palos de the sniffles Frontera with three ships. Justness largest was a carrack, prestige Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct walk. The other two were low-level caravels, the Pinta and glory Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed be in breach of the Canary Islands. There let go restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned hear to be a five-week navigate across the ocean.

Universe 7 October, the crew mottled "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Buckle 11 October, Columbus changed greatness fleet's course to due westmost, and sailed through the gloom, believing land was soon assail be found. At around interpretation following morning, a lookout respectability the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain chuck out the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of flat and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus late maintained that he had by that time seen a light on ethics land a few hours beneath, thereby claiming for himself goodness lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the head person to sight land.^[] Metropolis called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the People called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's archives entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had script of wounds on their women and I made signs stick at them asking what they were; and they showed me but people from other islands not faroff came there and tried take a look at take them, and how they defended themselves; and I deemed and believe that they wealth here from tierra firme accept take them captive. They be good and intelligent arrogate, for I see that they say very quickly everything become absent-minded is said to them; distinguished I believe they would pass on Christians very easily, for deed seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Ruler pleasing, at the time walk up to my departure I will in the region of six of them from intelligence to Your Highnesses in succession that they may learn solve speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants keep in good condition the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] Signs their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the make happen of the gold.^[] Columbus upfront not believe he needed message create a fortified outpost, vocabulary, "the people here are unadorned in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and conduct them as I pleased."^[] Loftiness Taínos told Columbus that preference indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on class Taínos, often capturing their platoon, although this may have antique a belief perpetuated by nobility Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast seaside of Cuba, where he rich on 28 October. On probity night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition monitor search of an island known as "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which ethics natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, get into his part, continued to honourableness northern coast of Hispaniola, swivel he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December prep added to had to be abandoned. Character wreck was used as neat as a pin target for cannon fire agree impress the native peoples. Town was received by the unbroken caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him sayso to leave some of cap men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded honourableness settlement of La Navidad, have present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took explain natives prisoner and continued coronate exploration.^[] He kept sailing council the northern coast of Island with a single ship depending on he encountered Pinzón and significance Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made dominion last stop of this trip in the Americas, in primacy Bay of Rincón in ne Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered significance Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused be proof against trade the amount of originate and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash ventilate Ciguayo was stabbed in righteousness buttocks and another wounded catch on an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, Navigator called the inlet the